They are interested in different social contexts of conversation especially its organization and the processes involved in the encoding and decoding of its meaning. The focus of the analyst in the field of discourse is naturally occurring conversation which may be utterances or documented conversation.
Schiffrin 42 also gives an interesting exposition by explaining that analyses of discourse reveal interdependence between structure and function of language in use.
She asserts that structural definition focuses on text while functional definition focuses on context. There are several functions that language can be used to perform in social context especially interactional conversational interaction. Jakobson proposes six functions of language which Hymes also supports. Halliday has also proposed three broad functions he believes language should perform as ideational, interpersonal and textual functions. These functions can be performed by language in different genres of discourse.
Texts can be taken from various genres of discourse such as family interaction among family members , classroom interaction between teacher and students , hospital interaction between doctor and patient , market interaction between seller and buyer , political conversation among political actors on political issues , religious interaction between priest and congregation , legal conversation on legal issues either between the judge and the accused or between lawyer and his client.
In each of these fields of human operation, the function that language is used to perform can be situated in any of the functions given above, or at times a discourse can perform some of these function if analyzed. He could not do justice to the concept because he only applied the structuralist approach which could not explore semantic import of language analyzed.
Halliday , and develops what Harris introduced earlier when he discusses the field, the mode and the tenor of discourse. Sinclair and Coulthard are the first people that made an attempt to produce a structural analysis of naturally occurring conversation in classroom dialogue. They examine spontaneous discourse units and their relation in sequence. Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson have paved the ground on which Sinclair and Coulthard achieved their success in discourse analysis.
Various scholars have produced several works on the concept. Discourse features There are certain features that characterized discourse. These features varies in number, but what makes them important is that they are embedded in the field of discourse and their knowledge makes the analysis of discourse easier for scholars who are not very familiar with discourse. Among all those who have produced literatures on discourse analysis Wale Osisanwo gives simple but comprehensive features of discourse in his introductory book Introduction to Discourse Analysis and Pragmatics.
These features agree with our perspective and will be explored briefly. Conversation: this is interaction between people. At two people must be involved in conversation, and one talks after another especially as a response to the first speaker. In some situation, one may use paralinguistic cues as a response such as gesture, nodding or facial expression.
Discourse participants: these are the people involved in conversation. They are known as interlocutors; each of them is addressed differently as speaker and addressee.
Opening and closing of discourse: the preliminary exchange that must take place before conversation begins is discourse opening. It may be in form of greeting or summoning. It creates a platform to initiate conversation. Closing of discourse is the concluding remark made by one of the participants to show that conversation has come to an end.
Holding floor: this is a situation in which a participant is speaking in a discourse while the other participants wait for him to finish what he has to say. The person speaking is holding floor at that moment. Turn-taking: it is a point at which a speaker stops speaking and another speaker begins to speak.
In conversation each participant waits for his turn to avoid overlapping. Selecting the next speaker: it is the method of choosing who speaks. It is done in two ways: either by calling the next speaker to air his view or by using non-verbal cues such as pointing to the next speaker or simply keeping quiet after speaking if only two participants are involved in discourse. Overlapping: it is also called interruption. It occurs when another speaker does not allow the first speaker to finish his talk, so that two or more participants are talking at the same time as we experience in football talks.
Topic negotiation: it is a device used by a participant who feels abandoned in conversation and is eager to make his point at all cost. It is done by introducing a new topic. Discourse markers: these are the devices or cue words used to mark boundary of an utterance in discourse to show relation.
They show how a piece of discourse is connected to another piece of discourse, that is, they show connection between what has been said or written and what will be said or written. Speech errors: these are mistakes made during conversation or when a turn is going on. It could be factual error or errors of construction. Repair mechanism: this is the method used to correct speech errors.
It may be done through restatement or withdrawal of statement, or being corrected by the other participants. Role sharing: role is allocated to participants in a social set-up based on age, sex, education, achievement, profession or social status. The factors above are used in allocation of turns in human society since it is highly stratified. Talk initiation: it is the process of starting conversation.
One of the participants starts the conversation while the other listens. Elicitation in talk: it is the process of demanding a reaction, response or feedback verbal or non-verbal from an interlocutor by questioning the interlocutor.
Adjacency pairs: when the exchange structures are in pairs, we have adjacency pair. They are always complementary and reciprocatory with features such as greeting and response, complaint and apology, question and answer, challenge and reaction. Discourse rank-scale The concept of rank-scale is the organization of units in hierarchical order. It means that a larger unit in rank is made up of one or more units of the rank below it. In this case, it implies that the higher unit in rank has structure that can be explored while the lowest unit has no structure.
Halliday divides grammar into morpheme, word, phrase, clause and sentence in grammatical rank-scale. Lesson is the highest unit in discourse rank-scale while act is the lowest unit in ascending order.
Act An act is the smallest unit in discourse hierarchy. It has no structure of its own; therefore, it is not divisible just like morpheme. It can be created by grammatical units such as words, groups, clauses or sentences. It relates to the function of an utterance it was meant to perform which is illocutionary act of Searle Act always performs actions, and it is categorized according to functions it performs. There are three main types of act. They are informative act, elicitation act and directive act.
An informative act gives information to the interlocutor in form of response either positive or negative in verbal utterance or non-verbal communication such as nodding, shaking of head etc. For example: Beni: You need to rest. Teni: Yes. You know. Grace: Nod non-verbal communication An elicitation act is used to demand a verbal response the interlocutor. It comes in form of question with a predicated answer. If the response is delayed, the question is repeated with emphasis or reframed.
The response may be accompanied by body language such as nodding, raising or shaking of hand. For example: Mum: Where is the toy? John: It is here, mum. Mary: Silence delayed response Solomon: I ask again; where are you coming from? Mary: The club. It may receive either verbal or non-verbal response, or at times both verbal and non- verbal response.
Tonia: A deal. Chukwu: Can you give me a cup of water? Chinyere: Coming with a cup of water Here is it sir. Dad: Please shut the door. Titi: She shut the door. Move A move is a unit of discourse higher than act in rank and lower than exchange. It consists of one or more acts in its structure. A move is simple when it consists of one act, but complex when there are more than one act in its constituent.
Unlike act, a move has act in its structure. For example: Chuks: I need your help. Chuks: I lost my wallet when I was coming from the Sports Centre. Please, lend me till next week. Sinclair and Coulthard have identified five types of move in classroom discourse which make up exchanges.
They are framing move, focusing move, opening move, answering move and follow-up move. The framing move is used to structure lesson, that is, it indicates the end of a lesson or initial task and readiness for another task. For example: Ayo: As soon as I collect my salary, I will change the furniture. The opening move directs the students to participate in a conversation by starting it off for them to follow. Answering move is a response to the opening.
An answering move may have two parts: a head and a post-head. It is the head that will give the response to the opening, and the post-head requires that the initiator of the opening to give a response to it. Dad: Prepare a cup of tea for me. Do you want it cold or hot? It functions as feedback or verdict to confirm whether the answering move is correct or wrong.
Supervisor: How do you convince a customer to choose your customer to choose your product instead of other products? Sales rep. Supervisor: Good, you got it. There are two types of exchange in classroom discourse according to Sinclair and Coulthard They are boundary exchanges and teaching exchanges.
Boundary exchanges are initiated by the teacher to signal a transition from one section of lesson to another.
Teaching exchanges take place where questions are asked, answered and feedback is given to the answers. Boundary exchange consists of two moves: framing and focusing moves.
Teaching exchange consists of three moves: opening, answering and follow-up moves. Sinclair and Coulthard describe three kinds of teaching exchanges as informing, directing and eliciting exchanges. An informing exchange takes place in a situation where the teacher needs to give his or her students new information or facts that they need to know. A directing exchange is meant to get the students to perform an action by doing something, but not speaking.
An eliciting exchange is the common exchange in the classroom discourse. It takes place when the teacher asks a question; the student provides an answer, and the teacher gives a follow-up evaluation. Transaction Transaction is made up of an exchange or a sequence of exchanges united by a single task. It is the next to lesson in the rank-scale. It is the basic unit of conversation and consists of minimal contribution made by the participants in the discourse.
These markers are called frames. Lesson A lesson is the highest unit of classroom discourse. It consists of a set of transactions. It refers to all activities that take place in the classroom from the moment the teacher enters the class till he leaves.
It consists of a sequence of interactions. Spoken discourse Spoken discourse includes all verbal utterances either formal or informal. It is discourse in verbal or spoken form.
Every social activity we get involved in to relate with one another such as causal conversation, interview, sermon, seminar, public lecture, classroom conversation, telephone exchange, political talk and so on is spoken discourse.
Though spoken discourse is verbal, it is also accompanied by some non-verbal behaviour such as facial gestures and body movement to aid interpretation of discourse. Casual conversation is the most frequent type of spoken discourse found in human society. Spoken discourse may be face-to-face or distance communication where the speaker is not physically present like telephone conversation, radio and television broadcast.
Certain features characterized spoken discourse which include known or expected audience, instant understanding and feedback, faster than written discourse and varied in speech, gesture, intonation, rhythm, pitch range and pausing.
Its lexical and grammatical compositions encourage the use of short phrases and clauses, attributive adjectives and lexical repetitions. Spoken discourse may be classified according to the number of participants involved. We have monologue in an uninterrupted speech by only one person. The speaker may be talking to himself or others who do not respond or are not expected to respond.
It is mostly used in drama. Dialogue is a conversation between two participants. Multilogue is a conversational situation where many participants are involved in a conversation. Utterance and communicative acts Utterance and communicative acts are indispensable concepts in spoken discourse. Utterance is a unit of spoken language in context. Schiffrin describes discourse as utterances. It implies that utterances are small units which made up discourse.
Utterances are contextualized sentences, that is, a collection of sentences placed in a particular context just as discourse is defined as language in context. An utterance is different from a sentence because a sentence is decontextualized while an utterance is contextualized sentences. Utterances are used to perform communicative acts. The concept of communicative acts is derived from J.
Austin lecture of titled How to Do Things with Words where he described every speech as an action. Communicative act is also referred to as speech act.
Every utterance made by a speaker is meant to perform an action, that is, changing the reality of the situation in context. The outcome of communicative act is the action carried out as a result of the utterance which is illocutionary result.
The position of J. Searle is that understanding the utterance which he called illocutionary result is more important. He explains illocutionary act as conventional relation between the utterance and the intention of the speaker. The act of the utterance is the main concern in communicative actions. It may be any of those given by J. Searle : assertives, directives, commissives, expressives and declaratives or those given by Jakobson referential, emotive, phatic, conative, metaphysical and poetic functions.
Communicative act is structured according to the three levels of speech act: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act because it is believed that utterance performs action at each level of speech act.
Written discourse Written discourse is any form of discourse that been graphically represented or documented on a piece of paper or other media means. It encourages documentation of the message conveyed which can be used later for referencing.
It is carefully constructed with a room for correction and reconstruction unlike the spoken discourse. The writer is able to adjust the content of his work. The ideas in written discourse are organized structurally into paragraphs. Each paragraph conveys an idea that can be summarized into one sentence called the topic sentence. Punctuation marks are employed in written discourse to make it meaningful to the reader. The paragraphs are linked one to another by connectives to make the discourse a unified whole.
We should note that written discourse can be divided into chapters, verses, sections, units, headings, subheadings etc. The writer is always careful in written discourse because anyone can pick the text up at any time to read. Some of the examples are novel, play, poem, book, editorial in newspaper, article in magazine, letter, report etc Brown and Yule Text The pioneers of systemic functional linguistic SFL who develop interest in the study of written discourse refer to the study of written discourse as text linguistics Halliday and Hasan 10, Bloor and Bloor Their view is that written discourse has certain feature which makes it different from spoken discourse, which is actually its textuality.
It is a continuous piece of writingor an extract from any part of written or printed materials Daramola Text is not restricted to written language alone; it is both spoken and written. It is defined by linguists as any language that is functional, that is, either spoken or written language working in a particular context.
It is described as a semantic unit. Daramola ibid explains that it has two basic features: a product and a process. It evolves as a semantic choice, as a process, through a semantic network in a context.
Text can be seen as a means of exchange or an interactive event between two speakers of a language. Texture Texture is the quality of a text. A text has texture because that is what distinguishes it from other combination of words that is not a text. It is the element that unifies the structure of a text by showing relation between sentences in an environment Halliday and Hasan Context Context is the social environment in which a text occurs.
It is a set of fact around a particular event. Thus, it is everything that surrounds production of an utterance including the situation, the interlocutors and the knowledge of the cultural norms and behaviour.
All these external factors constitute context which helps the language speaker to interpret meaning in appropriate manner. Schiffrin categorically declares that: Context is thus a world filled with people producing utterances: people who have social, cultural and personal identities, knowledge, beliefs, goals and wants and who interact with one another in various socially and culturally defined situations.
Context of situation is indispensable in the interpretation and understanding of discourse Daramola A text occurs in a context of situation. There are three components of context of situation according to Halliday. They are field, tenor and mode. The three components help us to focus our attention on a particular speech situation by making the features of a text explicit. Each of these components makes the study of discourse explicit. Field of discourse refers to the activity that is going on and the purpose that language is performing in context of the activity.
Tenor of discourse refers to the interaction among the participants especially the social relationship among them. Mode of discourse refers to the role of language in communication particularly as a channel or medium of communication.
The mode can either be spoken or written. Cohesion Cohesion is the relations of meaning which exist within the text and justify it as a text. Cohesion is lexical and grammatical unity within a text.
Without cohesion, a text will not make meaning. The elements that are used to achieve semantic unity in the text are called cohesive devices. Halliday and Hasan identify five major types of cohesive devices: references, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion. Each of these may further be subdivided. Let us briefly look at them. Reference Reference is the relation between an element of a text and something else which refers to it for interpretation in a given context.
Words used as references do not have their own meaning; we can only infer their meaning by referring to something else in the text. There are four major types of reference. First, anaphoric is making reference to what has been said earlier in the text. Second, cataphoric is the reference made to what will be said later in the text, that is, forward referencing. Third, endophoricis reference within the text; it covers both anaphoric and cataphoric.
Fourth, exophoric is the reference to something outside the text. Substitution It is the replacing of a word, phrase or clause with a word in the next clause to avoid repetition. For example: Bunmi: I won scholarship to study in London. Taju: I know it already. Ellipsis It is the deletion of certain grammatical elements from a structure for cohesive purpose. Such grammatical elements are referred to as redundant elements, but they can be uniquely recovered.
For example: Janet: Did you see the money I left on the table? James: No. They are cohesive devices used to link two successive clauses or sentences. Other scholars mention additive, temporal, adversative, casual and continuative relations of conjunction Onadeko Lexical cohesion Lexical relationship exists when lexical items have a structural relationship. Lexical items are used as a cohesive device when the features of words and group of words are used to create relationships among the words.
There are two types of lexical cohesion: reiteration and collocation. Reiteration simply means doing or saying the same thing several times. It may be done through the use of repetition, synonymy, hyponymy and antonymy.
Once the first item is mentioned, it is easy to mark out what follows. For example: husband and Coherence Coherence is what enables a text to make sense to people. It does not exist in language but in people. It is people who determine whether what they read makes sense or not because they try to arrive at an interpretation which is line with their experience. It is possible for a text to make sense without cohesive ties.
Such text has coherence but lacks cohesion. A: I am hungry. B: There is no money. C: I will wait. The text above still makes sense despite that there are no cohesive ties to join them.
Coherence can be achieved through cause and effect, contiguity in time and space, and associatives. Literary discourse Literary discourse is a text with literary features. It may be dramatic, prosaic or poetic. Each of the genres of literature has its peculiar stylistic features. Language is used as a vehicle for literature because every literary work is presented in language either in oral or written form, therefore, every literary work is a form of discourse.
Stylistics has prepared a ground where language and literature interact. Any literary discourse can be analyzed through any discourse analytical approach to investigate how language is used by the writer in the social context because literary writers write to communicate social, economic, political and religious issues in their community to society as a whole. Approaches to discourse analysis There are various approaches which can be applied in doing analysis of discourse.
When you studying a book especially hype book the author will bring you to imagine the story how the personas do it anything. Third, you could share your knowledge to other individuals. When you read this An Introduction to Analysis International Series in Mathematics , you are able to tells your family, friends as well as soon about yours reserve. Your knowledge can inspire the others, make them reading a reserve. Do you have something that you want such as book?
The book lovers usually prefer to pick book like comic, quick story and the biggest the first is novel. Now, why not seeking An Introduction to Analysis International Series in Mathematics that give your fun preference will be satisfied simply by reading this book.
Reading addiction all over the world can be said as the way for people to know world better then how they react in the direction of the world. It can't be claimed constantly that reading routine only for the geeky man or woman but for all of you who wants to end up being success person.
So , for all you who want to start reading as your good habit, you may pick An Introduction to Analysis International Series in Mathematics become your starter. Would you one of the book lovers?
If yes, do you ever feeling doubt if you find yourself in the book store? Attempt to pick one book that you find out the inside because don't assess book by its cover may doesn't work is difficult job because you are afraid that the inside maybe not while fantastic as in the outside seem likes. Maybe you answer might be An Introduction to Analysis International Series in Mathematics why because the excellent cover that make you consider in regards to the content will not disappoint an individual.
The inside or content is usually fantastic as the outside or cover. Your reading sixth sense will directly show you to pick up this book. Bilodeau, Paul R Thie, G. Keough Free PDF d0wnl0ad, audio books, books to read, good books to read, cheap books, good books, online books, books online, book reviews epub, read books online, books to read online, online library, greatbooks to read, PDF best books to read, top books to read An Introduction to Analysis International Series in Mathematics by Gerald G.
0コメント